Albert Einstein

by: Gen

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Wurttemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich and he began his schooling there at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aurau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he aquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Pysical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton. He became a US citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

After WWII, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Today's Vocabulary

Today's Vocabulary:

4 Words English:

venerate - to treat with deep respect
gustatory - pertaining to the sense of taste
serendipity - the faculty or phenomenon of making fortunate accidental discoveries
yen - a strong inclination or desire

4 Words Spanish:

make - haga
break - rotura
holiday - dia de fiesta
dark - oscuro

Today's Vocabulary

Today's Vocabulary:

4 Words English:

abrogate - to annul
penury - extreme poverty
variegated - varied
clamber - to climb with difficulty

4 Words Spanish:

poor - pobre
rich - rico
port - puerto
possible - posible

4 Words Japanese:

yen - en
hundred - hyaku
year - nen
river - kawa

Biomes

by Gen

A biome, in definition, is an entire community of living organisms in a single ecological area.

Here are some biomes:

Tundra - The tundra is a cold, treeless area; it is the coldest biome. The tundra is characterized by very low temperatures, very little precipitation, a short growing season, few nutrients, and low biological diversity. The word tundra comes from the Finish word tunturia, which means "treeless plain"

Taiga - A taiga, also called a boreal forest or northern coniferous forest, is a cold woodland or forest. The taiga is characterized by a cold, harsh climate, a low rate of precipitation, and short growing season.

Deciduous Forest - Deciduous forests are forests in cool, rainy areas; they have trees that loose their leaves in Fall and regrow them in Spring. Deciduous forests are found in the middle latitudes around the globe and have four distinct seasons: Spring, Summer, Fall, Winter.

Grasslands - A grassland is a grassy, windy, partly-dry biome, a sea of grass. Almost 1/4 of the Earth's land area is grassland. In many areas, grasslands separate forests from deserts. Deep rooted grasses dominate the flora in a grassland; there are very few trees and shrubs in a grassland... less than one per acre.

Savanna - A savanna is a hot, seasonally dry grassland with scattered trees. Savannas are located in the dry tropics and the subtropics, often bordering a rainforest. Savannas have an extended dry season and a rainy season.

Desert - Deserts cover about 1/5 of the Earth's land area. The desert is a harsh enviroment with very little rainfall and extreme temperatures. Some deserts get both very hot during the day, and very cold at night... when temps can fall below freezing!

Some deserts, however, are always cold. For example, the Gobi Desert of Asia and the desert on the continent on Antarctica.

Tropical Forests - Rainforests are very dense, warm, wet forests. They are haven for millions of plants and animals. Rainforests are extremely important in the ecology of the Earth. The plants of the rainforest generate much of the Earth's oxygen. These plants are also very important to people in other ways; many are used in new drugs that fight disease and illness.

Today's Vocabulary

Today's Vocabulary:

4 Words English:

neoteric - recent in origin; new
surly - ill-humored; sullen and gruff
vivify - to endue with life; to enliven
sycophant - one who seeks favor by flattery

4 Words Japanese:

city - haba
to fit - kuchi
to think - kokoro
paper - itohen

Independent vs Major Studio Film

by Gen

2 differences...

Firstly---
A Major Studio Film is usually a blockbuster film ... usually a action or thriller...
An Independent Film is usually of a special genre, like wildlife or contrevsal topics.

Second---
A Major Studio Film usually has a very big budget.
An Independent Film has a limited budget.

Examples of Independent Films---
The Silence of the Lambs
American History X
To Kill a Mockingbird
Magnolia

Examples of Major Studio Films---
Finding Nemo
The Sentinel
Garfield: A Tale of Two Kitties

Now we will take a look at 2 independent film makers...

Woody Allen

Real Name - Allen Stewart Konigsberg

Woody Allen was born on December 1, 1935, as Allen Konigsberg, in Brooklyn, NY. When he was 15, he started selling one-liners to gossip columns. After working a while as a stand up comidian, he was hired to write What's New, Pussycat in 1965. He directed his first film a year later, What's Up, Tiger Lily? in 1966.

Trademarks:

Often makes films about a director making films, casts himself in the lead role.

Frequently plays a neurotic New Yorker.

Frequently casts himself, Diane Keaton, Mia Farrow, Alan Alda, and Judy Davis.

Often talks to the camera directly.

His thick black glasses, the same since the 60s.

His films are almost all set in New York City.



Spike Lee

Real Name: Shelton Jackson Lee

Spike Lee was born Shelton Lee in 1957, in Atlanta Georgia. At a very young age he moved from pre-civil rights Georgia, to Brooklyn, New York. Lee came from a proud and intelligent background. His father was a jazz musician, and his mother a school teacher. His mother dubbed him Spike, due to his tough nature. He attended school in Morehouse College in Atlanta, where he developed his film making skills. After graduating from Morehouse, to go to the Tisch School of arts graduate film program. He made a controversial short, The Answer (1980), a reworking of D.W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation (1915) - a ten minute film. Lee went on to produce a 45 minute film Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads (1983), which won a student academy award. However success did not mean money, and Lee's next film, 'The Messenger', in 1984, was somewhat biographical.

With pointed political messages, insightful, different and intelligent films, Spike Lee has become a well known political presence. He looks likely to have further success in the film business.

Trademarks:

Frequently casts himself.

Frequently casts John Turturro,Samuel L. Jackson, Delroy Lindo, and Roger Guenveur Smith.

His films frequently involve African Americans and African-American themes.

Films called "A Spike Lee Joint"

Frequently has characters directly address the camera. Frequently places actors on dollies to achieve a gliding or rotating effect against the background of the shot.

His films often have the phrase "Wake Up!" as in an urging to the awakening of maturity and social conscience.

Baseball: Every one of his narrative feature films makes reference to baseball teams and players.

WWII

by Gen

The second global conflict resulted from the rise of totalitarian, militaristic regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan, a phenomenon stemming in part from the Great Depression that swept over the world in the early 1930s and from the conditions created by the peace settlements (1919-1920) following WWI.

After WWI, deaeated Germany, disapointed Italy, and ambitious Japan were anxious to regain their power, all three eventually adopted forms of dictatorship that made the state supreme and called for expansion at the expense of neighboring countries. These three countries also set themselves up as champions against Communism, thus gaining at least partial tolerance of their early actions from the more conservative groups in the Western democracies. Also important was a desire on the part of the democracies, which resulted in their military unpreparedness. Finally, the League of Nations, weakened from the start by the defection of the United States, was unable to promote disarmament, moreover, the long economic depression sharpened national rivalries, increased fear and distrust, and made the masses susceptible to the promises of demagogues.

The failure othe the League to stop the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1931 was followed by a rising crescendo of treaty violations and acts of aggression. Adolf Hitler, when he rose to power (1933) in Germany, recreated the German army and prepared it for a war of conquest; in 1936 he remilitarized the Rhineland. Benito Mussolini counquered (1935-1936) Ethiopia for Italy; and from 1936-1939 the Spanish war raged, with Germany and italy helping the facist forces of Francisco Franco to victory. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, and in September 1938, the British and French policy of appeasement toward the Axis reached its height with the sacrifice of much of Czechoslovakia to Germany in the Munich Pact.

When Germany occupied (March 1939) all of Czechoslovakia, and when Italy seized (April 1939) Albania, Britain and France abandoned their policy of appeasement and set about creating an antiaggression front, which included alliances with Turkey, Romania, Greece, and Poland. Germany and Italy signed a full military alliance, and after the Soviet-German nonaggresive pact removed German fear of a two front war, Germany was ready to launch an attack against Poland.

WWII began on September 1, 1939, when Germany, without a declaration of war, invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war mon Germany on September 3, and all the members of the Commonwealth of Nations, except Ireland, rapidly followed suit. The fighting in Poland was brief. The German blitzkrieg, or lightning war, with its use of new techniques of mechanized and air warfare, crushed the Poland defenses, and the conquest was almost complete when Soviet forces entered east Poland. While this campaign ended with the partition of Poland and while the USSR defeated Finland in the Finland-Russian War (1939-1940), the British and the French spent an inactive winter behind the Maginot Line, content with blockading Germany by sea.

The inactive period ended with the surprise invasion of Denmark and Norway by the Germans. Denmark offered no resistance; Norway was conquered by June 9. On May 10, German forces overran Luxembourg and invaded the Netherlands and Belgium; on May 13 they outflanked the Maginot Line. Their armored columns raced to the English Channel and cut off Flanders, and Allied forces were evacuated from Dunkirk. General Weygand had replaced General Gamelin as supreme Allied commander, but was unable to stop the Allied debacle in th "battle of France." On June 22, France signed an armistice with Germany, followed with an armistice with Italy, which had entered the war on June 10. The Vichy goverment was set up in France under Marshal Petain. Britain, the only remaining Allied power, resisted, under the inspiring leadership of Winston Churchill, the German attempt to bomb it into submission.

While Germany was recieving its first setback in the Battle of Britain, fought entirely in the air, the theatre of war was widened by the Italian attack on the British in North Africa, by the Italian invasion of Greece, and by German submarine warfare in the Atlantic Ocean. Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria joined the Axis late in 1940, but Yugoslavia resisted German pressure, and on April 6,1941, Germany launched attacks on Yugoslavia and Greece and won rapid victories. In May, Crete fell.

Britain gained a new ally on June 22, 1941, when Germany, invaded the Soviet Union. By December 1941, German mechanized divisions had destroyed a substansial part of the Soviet army and had overrun much of European Russia. However, theharsh Russian winter halted the German sweep, and the drive on Moscow was foiled by a Soviet counteroffensive.

Even though the US was determined to maintain neutrality, it was gradually drawn closer to the war by the force of events. To save Britian from collapse the Congress voted lend-lease aid early in 1941. In August, 1941, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt met Churchill on the high seas, and together they formulated the Atlantic Charter as a general statement of democratic aims. To establish bases to protect its shipping from attacks by German submarines, the US occupied Greenland and later shared in the occupation of Iceland, despite repeated warnings, the attacks continued. Relations with Germany became increasingly strained, and the aggresive acts of Japan in China, Indonesia, and Thailand provoked protests from the US.

Efforts to reach a peaceful settlement were ended on December 7, 1941, when Japan without warning attacked Pearl Harbor, the Phillipines, and Malaya. War was declared on Japan by the US, the Commonwealth of Nations (except Ireland) , and the Netherlands. Within a few days... Germany and Italy declared war on the US.

The first phase of the war in the Pacific was disastrous for the Allies. Japan swiftly conquered the Philipines, Malaya, Burma, Netherlands East Indies, and many Pacific islands; destroyed an Allied fleet in the Java Sea; and reached, by mid-1942, its furthest points of advance in the Aleutian Islands and New Guinea.

Australia became the chief Allied base for the countemoves against Japan, directed by General Douglas MacArthur, Admiral Nimitz, and Admiral Halsey. The first Aliied naval sucesses against Japan was scored in the battles if the Coral Sea and Midway, where US bombers knocked out the major part of Japan's carrier fleet and forced Japan into retreat. Midway was the first decisive blow against the Axis by Allied forces. On land the Allies took the offensive in New Guinea and landed on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

Despite the slightly improved position in the Pacific, the late summer of 1942 was perhaps the darkest period of the war for the Allies. In North Africa, the Axis forces under Field Marshal Rommel were sweeping int Egypt; in Russia, they had penetrated the Causcasus and launched a gigantic offensive against Stalingrad. In the Atlantic, even to the shores of the US and in the Gulf of Mexico, German submarines were sinking Allied shipping at an unprecedented rate.

Yet the Axis war machine showed signs of wear, while the US was merely beginning to realize its potential, and Russia had huge reserves and was receiving US lend-lease aid through Iran and the Port of Murmansk. The major blow, however, was leveled at the Axis by Britain, when General Montgomery routed Rommel at Alamein in North Africa. This was followed by the American invasion of Algeria; the Americans and British were joined by Free French forces of General de Gaulle and by regular French forces that had passed to the Allies after the surrender of Admiral Darlan. After heavy fighting in Tunisia, North Africa was cleared of Axis forces by May 12, 1943.

Meantime, in the Soviet stand at Stalingrad and counteroffensive resulted in the surrender of the German 6th Army, followed by nearly uninterrupted Russian advances. In the Meditterranean, the Allies followed up their African victory by the conquest of Sicily and the invasion of Italy, which surrendered on September 8. However, the German army in Italy fought bloody rearguard actions, and Rome fell only after the battles of Monte Cassino and Anzio. In the Atlantic, the submarine threat was virtually ended by the summer of 1944. Throughout German-occupied Europe, underground forces, largely supplied by the Allies, began to wage war against thier oppressors.

The Allies, who had signed the UN declaration, were drawn closer together militarily by the Casablanca Conference, at which they pledged to continue the war until the unconditional surrender of the Axis, and by the Moscow Conferences, the Quebec Conference, the Cairo Conference, and the Tehran Conference. The invasion of German-held France was decided upon, and General Dwight D Eisenhower was put in charge of the operation.

By the beginning of air warfare had turned overwhelmingly in favor of the Allies, who wrough unprecedented destruction on many German cities and on transport and industries throughout German held Europe. This air offensive prepared the way for the landing of the Allies in N France and a secondary landing in S France. After heavy fighting in Normandy, Allied armored divisions raced to the Rhine, clearing most of France and Belgium of German forces by October 1944. The use of V-1 and V2 rockets by the Germans proved as futile an effort as their counteroffensive in Belgium under General von Rundstedt.

On the Eastern Front Soviet armies swept through the Baltic States, E Poland, Belorussia, and Ukraine and forced the capitulation of Romania, Finland, and Bulgaria. Having evacuated the Balkan Peninsula, the Germans resisted in Hungary until Febuary 1945, but Germany itself was pressed. The Russians entered East Prussia and Czechoslovakia and took E Germany to the Oder.

On March 7 the Western Allies, whose chief commanders in the field were Omar N. Bradley and Mongomery, crossed the Rhine after having smashed through the strongly fortified Siegfried Line and overran W Germany. German collapse came after the meeting of the Western and Russian armies at Torgau in Saxony, and after Hitler's death amid the ruins of Berlin, which was falling to the Russians under marshals Zhukov and Konev. The unconditional surrender of Germany was signed at Reims on May 7 and ratified at Berlin on May 8.

After the completion of the campaigns in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea, the Allied advance moved inexorably, in two lines that converged on Japan, through scattered island groups, the Philippines, the Mariana Islands, Okinawa, and Iwo Jima. Japan, with most of its navy sunk, staggered beneath these blows. At the Yalta Conference, the USSR secretly promised its aid against Japan, which still refused to surrender even after the Allied appeal made at the Potsdam Conference. On August 6, 1945, the United States first used the atomic bomb and devastated Hiroshima; on August 9, the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. The USSR had already invaded Manchuria. On August 14, Japan announced its surrender, formally signed aboard the US battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2.

Although hostilities came to an end in September, 1945, a new world crisis caused by the postwar conflict between the USSR and the United States—the two chief powers to emerge from the war—made settlement difficult. By March, 1950, peace treaties had been signed with Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland; in 1951, the Allies (except the USSR) signed a treaty with Japan, and, in 1955, Austria was restored to sovereignty. Germany, however, remained divided—first between the Western powers and the USSR, then (until 1990) into two German nations.

Despite the birth of the United Nations, the world remained politically unstable and only slowly recovered from the incalculable physical and moral devastation wrought by the largest and most costly war in history. Soldiers and civilians both had suffered in bombings that had wiped out entire cities. Modern methods of warfare, together with the attempt of Germany to exterminate entire religious and ethnic groups (particularly the Jews)—famines, and epidemics, had brought death to tens of millions and made as many more homeless. The suffering and degradation of the war's victims were of proportions that passed the understanding of those who had been spared. The conventions of warfare had been violated on a large scale, and warfare itself was revolutionized by the development and use of nuclear weapons.

Political consequences included the reduction of Britain and France to powers of lesser rank, the emergence of the Common Market, the independence of many former colonies in Asia and Africa, and, perhaps most important, the beginning of the cold war between the Western powers and the Communist-bloc nations.

Acids and Bases

by Gen

For thousands of years people have known that vinegar, lemon juice and many other foods taste sour. However, it was not until a few hundred years ago that it was dicovered why these things taste sour. The term acid, in fact, comes from the Latin term acere, which means "sour".

In the 17th century, the English writer and amateur chemist Robert Boyle first labeled substances as either acids or bases according to these characteristics:

Acids taste sour, are corrosive to metals, change litmus red, and become less basic when mixed with bases.

Bases feel slippery, change litmus blue, and become less basic when mixed with acids.

Today's Vocabulary

Todays Vocabulary:

4 Words English:

expropiate - to deprive of possession
imbue - to dye; to instill profoundly
denizen - an inhabitant
nonplus - to confound; to perplex; to bewilder

4 Words Spanish:

Confuse - Confunda
Puzzle - Rompecabezas
Real - Verdadero
Fake - Falsification

Woodrow Wilson

by Gen

Wilson began his career practising law, but gave this up for acedemic life as a Professor of History and Political Economy at Bryn Mawr College, 1885-1888, Wesleyan University, 1888-1890, then as Professor of Jurisprudence and Politics, Princeton University, 1890-1910 (he was president of the University from 1902-1910). In 1911 taking another new turn, he was elected Democratic Governor of New Jersey.

He became president in 1913 and was re-elected in 1916 on the promise to keep the USA out of the First World War. In 1917, however, provoked Germany U-boat attack on American shipped and by German anti-America intrigues in Mexico, he persuaded Congress (the legislative body of the USA) to declare war on Germany.

He issued his famous 14 Points as a basis for a peace settlement in January 1918, and it was in the expectation that the peace settlement, including the Treaty of Versailles, which helped to negotiate in 1919, would be based upon national self-determination, but he was unable to impose his will on his allies, and the settlement was much harsher on Germany and its allies than Wilson had intended or expected.

He placed great hope in the idea of a League of Nations to settle international disputes peacefully, but he had underestimated the extent of opposition to the idea in the USA, where Congress voted to ratify the Treatyand therefore not join the League. Wilson's efforts to drum up popular support for the League broke his health, and he died in 1924.

WWI

by Gen

Within hours of the declaration of war, many men and boys swarmed to recruiting stations in Britain to enroll for military service. Posters were everywhere with Field Marshal Kitchener's pointing finger urging, "Your Country Needs You!". This was part of a program to recruit a massive new army of volunteers to reinforce the regulars who were already fighting in France. Within the first month over 1/2 a million men enlisted in Britain and a proportionate number of men stepped foward in every country of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Enlistment in Britain averaged over 100,000 a month for the next 18 months and eventually totaled 3,000,000 volunteers. In all, the British Commonwealth and Empire mobilized nearly 9,000,000 men. They and the Commonwealth troops were to be solely needed because by as early as October 1914 the small British Expeditionary Force had been badly depleted by an early war of movement following the Retreat from Mons. But the nature of the fighting was to change. When the BEF (British Expeditionary Force) returned north to counter the German thrust for the Channel ports, both sides collided in a fierce battle at Ypres. Although the Germans sustained enormous casulaties, the dwindling British force was in worse condition with few reserves.


German Strategy

Germany conquered so much strategic and industrial territory in 1914, including most of France's coal and steel making regions, that General Erich von Falkenhayn could afford to withdraw his army from less defensible ground and fortify generally higher and advantageous positions. This placed British and Frech troops at a disadvantage throughout the war; they continually had to occupy militarily less suitable areas and impermanent earthworks. In addition to this, as Germany was the occupier and defending her gains, most of the attacking between First Ypres and Spring 1918 was done by the Allies in attempts to oust that occupier, and the attacker almost always suffers more heavily than the defender.

Today's Vocabulary

Today's Vocabulary,

4 Words English:

supercilious - disdainfully arrogant
cadge - to beg, to sponge
agog - an eager desire
mimetic - imitative

4 Words Spanish:

think - piense
awake - despeirto
asleep - dormido
sudden - repentino

4 Words Japanese:

to say - kotoba
self - mizukara
to go - gyouninben
to calculate - takekanmuri

Today's Vocabulary

Today's Vocabulary:

4 Words English:

daedal - skillful, artistic, ingenious
comestible - suitable to be eaten
sardonic - scornful, mocking
lexicon - a dictionary

4 Words Spanish:

sky - cielo
ground - tierra
left - izquierdo
right - la derecha

Today's Vocabulary

Today's Vocabulary:

4 Words English:

explicate - to explain
censorous - harshly critical
equable - equal and uniform
assidous - constant in application or attention

4 Words Spanish:

hazard - peligro
attention - atencion
amaze - soprenda
awful - tremendo

The First Punic War

by Gen

The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. They are known as the "Punic" wars because Rome's name for Carthaginians was Punici.

The cause of the war was the clash of interests between the expanding Carthaginian and Roman influences. The Romans were very interested in expansion through Sicily, most of which was under Carthaginian control. At the start of the first Punic War, Carthage was the ascendant power of the Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was rapidly rising in prominence as the most dominant power in Italy. By the conslusion of the third war, Rome had conquered Carthage's entire empire, becoming the most powerful state in the Mediterranean.


The First Punic War

The First Punic War was fought between Rome and Carthage from 264BC to 241 BC. It was the first of 3 major wars between the two powers for supremacy in the Mediterranean. After 23 years of fighting, Rome emerged the victor and imposed heavy conditions upon Carthage as the price for peace.

In the middle of the 3rd century BC, the power of Rome was growing. Following centuries of internal rebellions and disturbances, the whole of the Italian penisula was tightly secured under Roman hands. All enemies, such as the Latin league or the Samnites, had been overcome, and the invasion of Pyrrhus of Epirus was repelled.

Romans had an enormous confidence in their political system and military. Across the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Strait of Sicilly, Carthage was already an established naval and commercial power, controlling most of the Mediterranean maritime trade routes. Originally a Phoenician colony, the city had become the center of a wide commercial empire reaching along the North African coast to as far as Iberia.

In 288 BC, the Mamertines, a group of Italian mercanaries, occupied the city of Messina in the northeastern tip of Sicily, killing all the men and taking the women as their wives. From this base, they ravaged the countryside and became a problem for the independent city of Syracuse. When Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, came to power in 265 BC, he decided to take definitive action against the Mamertines and sieged Messina.

Most likely unwilling to see the Carthaginian power spread further over Sicily and get too close to Italy, Rome responded by entering into an alliance with the Mamertines.

In 264 BC, Roman troops were deployed to Sicily and forced a reluctant Syracuse to join their alliance. Soon enough the only parties in the dispute were Rome and Carthage and the conflict evolved into a struggle for the possession of Sicily.

Sicily was a hilly island, with geographical obstacles and a terrain where lines of communication are difficult to maintain, land warfare played a secondary role in the First Punic War. Land operations were mostly confined to small scale raids and skirmishes between the armies, with hardly any pitched battle. Sieges and land blockades were the most common operations for the regular army. The main targets of blockading were the important naval ports, since neither of the belligerent parties were based in Sicily and both needed a continuous supply of reinforcements and communication with the mainland.

Despite these general considerations, at least two large scale land campaigns were fought during the First Punic War. In 262 BC, Rome besieged the city of Agrigentum, an operation that involved both armies, a total of 4 Roman legions, and took several months to resolve. The garrison or Agrigentum managed to call for reinforcements and a Carthaginian relief force commanded by Hanno came to the rescue. With supplies from Syracuse cut, the Romans found themselves sieged. After a few skirmishes, the battle of Agrigentum was fought and won by Rome, and the city fell. Inspired by this victory, Rome attempted another large scale land operation, this time with different results.

Following several naval battles, Rome was aiming for a quick end to the war and decided to invade the Carthaginian colonies of Africa, to force the ememy to accept terms. A major fleet was built, both of transports for the army and its equipment and warships for protection. Carthage tried to intevene but was defeated in the battle of Cape Ecnomus.

As a result, the Roman army commanded by Marcus Atilius Regulus landed in Africa and started to ravage the Carthaginian countryside. At first Regulus was victorious, winning the battle of Adys and forcing the Carthage to sue for peace. The terms were so heavy that negotiations failed and, in responce, the Carthaginians hired Xanthippus, a Spartan mercenary, to reorganize the army. Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthiginian naval supremacy, then defeated and captured Regulus at the battle of Tunis.

Toward the end of the conflict, Carthage sent general Hamilcar Barca to Sicily. Hamilcar managed to gain control of most of inland Sicily; in desparation, the Romans appointed a dictator to resolve the situation. Nevertheless, Carthaginian success in Sicily in Sicily was secondary to the progress of the war at sea; Hamilcar remaining undefeated in Sicily became irrelevant following the Roman naval victory at the battle of the Aegates in 241 BC.

Rome won the first Punic War after 23 years of conflict and in the end replaced Carthage as the dominant naval power of the mediterranean. In the aftermath of the war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted. To determine the final borders of their territories, they drew what they considered a straight line across the mediterrean. Hispania, Corsica, Sardinia and Africa remained Carthaginian. All that was north of that line was signed over to Rome. Rome's victory was greatly influenced by its persistent refusal to admit defeat and by accepting only total victory. Moreover, the Repulic's ability to attract private investments in the war effort by playing on their citizens' patriotism to fund shipps and crews, was one of the deciding factors of the war, particularly when contrasted with the Carthaginian nobility's apparent unwillingness to risk their fortunes for the common good. The end of the First Punic War also resulted in the official birth of Roman navy, further enticing the expansion of the Roman Empire.